萨特有没有伦理学?(5)
作者:佚名; 更新时间:2014-12-05
ed by Sartre himself: “Published after my death, these texts will remain unfinished and obscure, since they formulate ideas which are not completely developed. It will be up to the reader to decide where they might have led me.”[8]
Yet we must also pass a negative judgment on the possibility of Sartre’s ethics. The reason I also give a negative answer is that ultimately Sartre himself did not provide us with a work of ethics. He intended to write it up several times in his lifetime, but he postponed it or gave it up every time. We have to take this fact seriously. Because of it, I believe, finally we are unable to conceive what this ethics would be. As I said in another article: Sartre had difficulties in resolving certain theoretical problems in his ethics, such as the relation between socialism and liberty, which stopped him from completing it. These unsolved problems are also an obstacle for us if we seek to complete and develop Sartre’s ethics, since we have no idea what Sartre himself might have suggested as a solution. We must add that, for all the material we have, these sources of Sartre’s writings on ethics are also very limited. Many of the notebooks he wrote between 1945 and 1949 have disappeared, and his notes on ethics written in 1964-1965 are still unpublished. According to Bob Stone and Elizabeth Bowman, more than a thousand pages of manuscripts were prepared for lectures Sartre was to give in Rome and in the United States, but this material remains unpublished. This material is obviously necessary for a study of Sartre’s ethics, for it reflects what his dialectical ethics and the latest version of ethics would have become. As David Pellauer, the translator of Sartre’s Notebooks for an Ethics says, “anyone venturing to present ‘Sartre’s ethics’ must accept the possibility of being proved mistaken, at least until we have all of this material and whatever other writings may yet appear.”[9]
As we have seen, Sartre never completely abandoned the theory of human freedom raised in his early works, but he did want to move from his theory of purely individual freedom to one of the free people living in the society. He wrote down many literatures to develop the dialectical ethics, but unfortunately we are unable to read all of them. This is the current situation that scholars who wish to examine Sartre’s ethical thoughts must confront with and accept.
Based on this premise, to examine and retrieve Sartre’s ethics should first go through his ontology, in order to find the foundation on which his ethics is built upon. That is, the theory of freedom, which is the basis and the unifying thread of his ethics. Next, search for the essential issues of ethics he discussed in various places to find out the main ideas and distinctive points of his ethics. Moreover, pay more attention on ethical discussions after his radical conversion, because those are the points Sartre really wanted to expound as his neo-ethics.
Having completed my inquiry into what Sartre has to say about ethics, we can get the answer whether there is finally a Sartrean ethics. Sartre indeed leaves us many significant and creative reflections on ethics, which are his obvious contribution to the theory of ethics. Even though he did not accomplish a systematic ethics, we cannot disregard what he brought about and say that there is no such a thing as Sartre’s ethics.
The most significant points and characteristics of Sartean ethics, in my view, are as follows:
Human freedom is the unifying thread of Sartre’s entire ethical theories. Sartre explains from ontology why and how man is originally free and how he sets freedom as his ultimate goal. This is because man is a being for-itself, he is a consciousness in nature, so that he is actually nothingness, contrasted to the things in the world-being in-itself, which itself is founded upon being about which we can only say that it is and is what it is. Since man lacks being, he constantly makes projects in order to transcend himself toward the in-itself. During the course of attempting to become a being in-itself-for-itself, man must deal with various choices. He is free to choose any one among many and he is responsible for what he does choose. Values and morality are brought forth in this process of choosing. Whatever he chooses, it not only makes moral value upsurge, but also is directed toward man’s ultimate end—the maximum freedom. All human activities are and for the matter of freedom. Freedom is the soul of Sartre’s ethics. Without it, Sartre’s ethics would not be established.
Another important point is that Sartre emphasizes the power of man in morality. Sartre rejects all traditional views pertaining to a priori moral rules, human nature, and God’s role in relation to human behavior. He firmly and bravely states that there is no a priori morality, including a given nature and God, to control human activities. At the same time, he challenges the view that “if God is dead, everything is permitted.” He announces loudly that God provides us nothing in morality. He says, it is up to man, to human beings, to create morality. Man makes a decision by himself about what he should do, so it is man who makes things valuable, meaningful and therefore creates moral laws. Although Sartre’s view is fresh and new, it has caused many debates. Many tough questions have been raised regarding what Sartre says about values being the product of man’s freedom and his lack of being, such as if it is the case that every choice is valuable and moral, how to explain a choice of murdering? Obviously no one would think killing is just. In addition, if every choice is right, it would not be possible to weigh one thing as more valuable than another and to choose a better one. Moreover, if it were the case that all choices are moral, there would be no immorality. But if there is no immorality, what’s the necessity of ethics? Furthermore, if all value are derived from choices, how can we also show that freedom is the highest value since freedom is not derived from choices but it is a consequence of man’s mode of being which makes choosing possible.
These questions are central to any evaluation of the adequacy of Sartre’s position regarding the subjectivity of all value judgments. If he cannot offer a reasonable answer to them, his point cannot stand. I have not been able to find anything that would indicate Sartre’s own response to these criticisms. Perhaps he did not anticipate such questions when he was formulating the basic framework of his ethics. Or maybe he was confident that he could respond to them, but he planned to do so in the volume on ethics that was never completed and never published. It might also be possible that he was unable to find a satisfactory answer and so chose to leave it as a problem for people after him to resolve, since it is evident from what we have seen that he never was willing to give up his early position concerning the proper understanding of human freedom. Therefore, we find here one crucial point for any further investigation into Sartre’s ethics. Either one must find a way to answer these difficult questions, it would seem, or one must begin a
Yet we must also pass a negative judgment on the possibility of Sartre’s ethics. The reason I also give a negative answer is that ultimately Sartre himself did not provide us with a work of ethics. He intended to write it up several times in his lifetime, but he postponed it or gave it up every time. We have to take this fact seriously. Because of it, I believe, finally we are unable to conceive what this ethics would be. As I said in another article: Sartre had difficulties in resolving certain theoretical problems in his ethics, such as the relation between socialism and liberty, which stopped him from completing it. These unsolved problems are also an obstacle for us if we seek to complete and develop Sartre’s ethics, since we have no idea what Sartre himself might have suggested as a solution. We must add that, for all the material we have, these sources of Sartre’s writings on ethics are also very limited. Many of the notebooks he wrote between 1945 and 1949 have disappeared, and his notes on ethics written in 1964-1965 are still unpublished. According to Bob Stone and Elizabeth Bowman, more than a thousand pages of manuscripts were prepared for lectures Sartre was to give in Rome and in the United States, but this material remains unpublished. This material is obviously necessary for a study of Sartre’s ethics, for it reflects what his dialectical ethics and the latest version of ethics would have become. As David Pellauer, the translator of Sartre’s Notebooks for an Ethics says, “anyone venturing to present ‘Sartre’s ethics’ must accept the possibility of being proved mistaken, at least until we have all of this material and whatever other writings may yet appear.”[9]
As we have seen, Sartre never completely abandoned the theory of human freedom raised in his early works, but he did want to move from his theory of purely individual freedom to one of the free people living in the society. He wrote down many literatures to develop the dialectical ethics, but unfortunately we are unable to read all of them. This is the current situation that scholars who wish to examine Sartre’s ethical thoughts must confront with and accept.
Based on this premise, to examine and retrieve Sartre’s ethics should first go through his ontology, in order to find the foundation on which his ethics is built upon. That is, the theory of freedom, which is the basis and the unifying thread of his ethics. Next, search for the essential issues of ethics he discussed in various places to find out the main ideas and distinctive points of his ethics. Moreover, pay more attention on ethical discussions after his radical conversion, because those are the points Sartre really wanted to expound as his neo-ethics.
Having completed my inquiry into what Sartre has to say about ethics, we can get the answer whether there is finally a Sartrean ethics. Sartre indeed leaves us many significant and creative reflections on ethics, which are his obvious contribution to the theory of ethics. Even though he did not accomplish a systematic ethics, we cannot disregard what he brought about and say that there is no such a thing as Sartre’s ethics.
The most significant points and characteristics of Sartean ethics, in my view, are as follows:
Human freedom is the unifying thread of Sartre’s entire ethical theories. Sartre explains from ontology why and how man is originally free and how he sets freedom as his ultimate goal. This is because man is a being for-itself, he is a consciousness in nature, so that he is actually nothingness, contrasted to the things in the world-being in-itself, which itself is founded upon being about which we can only say that it is and is what it is. Since man lacks being, he constantly makes projects in order to transcend himself toward the in-itself. During the course of attempting to become a being in-itself-for-itself, man must deal with various choices. He is free to choose any one among many and he is responsible for what he does choose. Values and morality are brought forth in this process of choosing. Whatever he chooses, it not only makes moral value upsurge, but also is directed toward man’s ultimate end—the maximum freedom. All human activities are and for the matter of freedom. Freedom is the soul of Sartre’s ethics. Without it, Sartre’s ethics would not be established.
Another important point is that Sartre emphasizes the power of man in morality. Sartre rejects all traditional views pertaining to a priori moral rules, human nature, and God’s role in relation to human behavior. He firmly and bravely states that there is no a priori morality, including a given nature and God, to control human activities. At the same time, he challenges the view that “if God is dead, everything is permitted.” He announces loudly that God provides us nothing in morality. He says, it is up to man, to human beings, to create morality. Man makes a decision by himself about what he should do, so it is man who makes things valuable, meaningful and therefore creates moral laws. Although Sartre’s view is fresh and new, it has caused many debates. Many tough questions have been raised regarding what Sartre says about values being the product of man’s freedom and his lack of being, such as if it is the case that every choice is valuable and moral, how to explain a choice of murdering? Obviously no one would think killing is just. In addition, if every choice is right, it would not be possible to weigh one thing as more valuable than another and to choose a better one. Moreover, if it were the case that all choices are moral, there would be no immorality. But if there is no immorality, what’s the necessity of ethics? Furthermore, if all value are derived from choices, how can we also show that freedom is the highest value since freedom is not derived from choices but it is a consequence of man’s mode of being which makes choosing possible.
These questions are central to any evaluation of the adequacy of Sartre’s position regarding the subjectivity of all value judgments. If he cannot offer a reasonable answer to them, his point cannot stand. I have not been able to find anything that would indicate Sartre’s own response to these criticisms. Perhaps he did not anticipate such questions when he was formulating the basic framework of his ethics. Or maybe he was confident that he could respond to them, but he planned to do so in the volume on ethics that was never completed and never published. It might also be possible that he was unable to find a satisfactory answer and so chose to leave it as a problem for people after him to resolve, since it is evident from what we have seen that he never was willing to give up his early position concerning the proper understanding of human freedom. Therefore, we find here one crucial point for any further investigation into Sartre’s ethics. Either one must find a way to answer these difficult questions, it would seem, or one must begin a